A Study on the Korean equestrian participation process based on revised Psychological Continuum Model

Psychological Continuum Model (PCM)

PCM assigns individuals in a distinct phase in a sequence according to certain characteristics, and this stage based framework is better able to explain how or why leisure activity occurs and continues compared to those treat subjects as either participants or nonparticipants (Funk et al., 2011). The PCM framework suggests four and describes various psychological connections in a vertical framework. In particular, it provides an understanding of how participants find out about leisure activity, what attracts them, the importance and meaning one place in it, and reasons they continue to participate over long periods of time (Murphey, 2014).

The initial floor ‘Awareness’ denotes when an individual first learns that certain leisure activity exist, but does not have a specific preference (Funk & James, 2001). A psychological connection to leisure activity starts developing in awareness stage, and attitude is derived primarily through initial exposure anytime in life by family, friends, or media outlets (Funk et al., 2011). The second floor ‘Attraction’ denotes when distinct interest or attitude formation toward specific favourite leisure activity develops (Funk & James, 2001), however, level of connection with leisure activity is not durable or stable, therefore an participant’s attraction may also change when situational factors change or alternative options are available (Funk et al., 2000; Hill & Green, 2000; Kolbe & James, 2000). The third floor ‘Attachment’ denotes when the individual forms a meaningful psychological connection and assigns emotional, functional, and symbolic meanings to leisure activity and related experiences (Funk & James, 2001). Finally, the fourth floor ‘Allegiance’ denotes when psychological connection becomes resistant and persistent and result in influential attitudes that produce consistent and durable behavior (Funk & James, 2001).

The PCM provides a useful framework for conceptualizing four different stages related to leisure activity, however, it has failed to address how participants progress between stages and how participants process create distinct outcomes as one moves up the hierarchy (Funk & James, 2006). To include processes to explain the stage based outcomes, Funk and James (2006) suggested a revised PCM. Revised PCM is a comprehensive systematic framework that shows how to explore inputs, structural processes and multi-level outcomes, thereby provides individual’s unique trajectory toward allegiance (Funk & James, 2006). The framework of the whole process and the outcomes of each stage of revised PCM are as shown in <Figure 1>.

Figure 1.

The revised Psychological Continuum Model (Funk & James, 2006, p.193)

Construct establishment and study hypotheses

Study participants

The elaborated framework of PCM developed in this study was tested among Korean equestrian participants. Consumers at various equestrian clubs in Korea were targeted for the survey, and the researcher visited each club from May 1st to July 3rd, 2018. A total of 12 equestrian clubs were selected by convenient sampling method from various provinces in Korea, and 320 questionnaires were distributed. After excluding the incomplete questionnaires, 312 questionnaires were used to final analysis. Participants without former riding experience were excluded. Summary of the selected equestrian clubs and demographic information of study participants are as shown in <Table 1> and <Table 2>.

Table 1.

Summary of the equestrian clubs

Table 2.

Demographic information of participants

(N=312)

Study instruments

To collect data required for verifying the relationships and moderating effect, the survey method distributing questionnaire was adopted. The survey questionnaire was configured to fifty one questions based on previous researches with modification for the purpose of this study. In detail, the questionnaire included fifteen questions from Jung (2016) to measure motivation in equestrian participation, twelve questions from Kyle and Mowen (2005) and McIntyre (1989) to measure involvement, nine questions to measure psychological commitment formative factors and four questions to measure resistance to change from Pritchard et al. (1999), five questions from Zeithaml et al. (1996), Bennett and Rundle-Thiele (2002), and Mellens et al. (1996) to measure loyalty, and six questions to measure demographic information of participants.

Study procedure

Total 312 questionnaires collected from equestrian participants were used for data processing using SPSS and AMOS programs. First, to identify the demographic characteristics of study participants, frequency analysis was conducted. Second, to test construct validity, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted. Third, in order to test the reliability of the variables, Cronbach's α coefficient which was a measure of internal consistency between items, was calculated. Finally, to verify the structural relationship among motivation, involvement, psychological commitment, and loyalty factors, correlation analysis was conducted. After confirming the significant correlations and multicollinearity, model fit and path analysis using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) were conducted.

Validity tests

Construct validity

To verify the construct validity of this study, Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was conducted. A series of the fit indices were considered to assess fitness of the questionnaire and the overall model fit, and Construct Reliability (CR) and Average Variance (AVE) were calculated to evaluate convergent and discriminant validity (Formell & Larcker, 1981). Standard for item elimination was value of Squared Multiple Correlations (SMC) lower than .4 (Kacmar & Carlson, 1997), and one item from position involvement factor was eliminated to improve the model without compromising the theoretical meaningfulness of the measure. The total values of model fit were χ²=1597.471, df=824, TLI and CFI were over .9 (TLI=.905, CFI=.917), and RMSEA was lower than .08 (RMSEA=.055), satisfying adequate fit (Hu & Bentler, 1999). Also, to verify the reliability of the scale, Cronbach’s coefficient alpha were used (Van de ven, &Ferry, 1980). The result of CFA and reliability analysis are as shown in <Table 3>.

Table 3.

Results of confirmatory factor analysis and reliability analysis

Correlation analysis

To analyze correlation among motivation (favor on a horse, pursuit of health, display of external condition, achievement, promoting friendship), involvement (attraction, self-expression, centrality), commitment formative (informational complexity, position involvement, volitional choice), resistant to change, and loyalty variables, Pearson’s product-moment correlation coefficient was calculated. The results of correlation analysis showed that statistically significant correlations existed and all latent variables were positively correlated. The values of correlation coefficient of all variables were lower than .8, proving they are free from the restriction of multicollinearity. The result of correlation analysis is as shown in <Table 4>.

Table 4.

Results of correlation analysis

Hypotheses testing

To analyze hypothesized relationships of motivation, involvement, psychological commitment, and loyalty, structural model analysis was conducted. The results of the proposed structure model test were χ2=1690.569, df=859, TLI and CFI were over .9 (TLI=.902, CFI=.911), and RMSEA was less than .08 (RMSEA=.056), showing a reasonable fit (Hu & Bentler, 1999; Steiger, 1990).

The first hypothesis examined the relationship between motivation factors and involvement factors. The hypothesis were partially supported, assuming that four motivation factors of equestrian participation positively affected each involvement factor. To be specific, favor on a horse and achievement positively affected attraction, self-expression, and centrality factors of involvement, however, pursuit of health did not affected all involvement factors and media and promoting friendship only affected self-expression and centrality.

The second hypothesis examined the relationship between involvement factors and commitment formative factors. The hypothesis were partially supported, assuming that two factors of involvement positively affected each commitment formative factor. To be specific, self-expression positively affected informational complexity, position involvement, and volitional choice factors of commitment formative, however, centrality did not affected all commitment formative factors and attraction only affected volitional choice.

The third hypothesis examined the relationship between commitment formative factors and resistance to change factor. The hypothesis were partially supported, assuming that two factors of commitment formative factors positively affected resistance to change factor. To be specific, informational complexity and volitional choice positively affected resistance to change, however, position involvement negatively affected resistance to change.

The fourth hypothesis examined the relationship between resistance to change factor and loyalty factor. The hypothesis was supported, assuming that resistance to change factor positively affected loyalty.

The results of the hypothesis testing is as shown in <Table 5>.

Table 5.

Results of hypothesized direct pathways

Discussion on the relationship between motivation and involvement

This study assumed that each motivation factor will positively affect each involvement factor, and hypothesis was partially supported. First, favor on a horse and achievement factors positively affected all the involvement factors. In other words, equestrian participants who participate due to curiosity about a horse, sympathy with a horse, and skill development consider the participation very important. They take pleasure in horse riding and believe that riding displays who I am. Moreover, they tend to center equestrian participation in their lives and spend much time in riding. Pyo (2011) explained this phenomenon in equestrian participation by peculiarity of equestrian activity. When exercising with horse creatures, participants starts to treat them not as exerciser but as the other self. And the longer the participants had been emotionalized this sentiment, the higher respect and identification with oneself toward horses are sensed. These involved participants recognize the riding as the attractive part of their lives. Kim and Park (2015) also supported the discussion about attraction by contending that equestrian participants seemed to have high level of flow that is related to pleasure, satisfaction, and enthusiasm when they sense self-confidence, needs, and achievement from riding experience. Meanwhile, Kim and Noh (2017b) observed that peculiarity of a horse and achievement or effort to improve equestrian skill promote leisure identity and pivot of life. Here, leisure identity implies that equestrian participation is represented as myself (self-expression) and pivot of life signifies that my life focuses on equestrian participation (centrality). Also, Kim et al. (2016) insisted that equestrian activity exhibit higher flow than other sports because it is the only sport that interact with an animal and creates a harmony with a horse. In addition, they insisted that attainment of equestrian technique increases flow and contentment with this flow again raises self-consciousness which provides more elevated flow. When participation is maintained and participants’ skills get superior, the novice’s fear about a horse and height diminishes and will to have interaction with horses and sense of achievement is strengthened (Kim, 2015).

Second, media and promoting friendship factors positively affected the two involvement factors, self-expression and centrality. In other words, people who participate in equestrian activity due to media or social exchanges believe that horse riding may express one’s own self and become means of the way others look one self. And equestrian participation plays a central role in their lives and times. Lee (2013) observed that edutainment motivation and social motivation reveal participants’ self-image and self-realization when people participate in serious leisure. Here, edutainment motivation implies to the motive from mass media, and social motivation implies to the motive related to other people such as family or friends. And self-image is related to the conscious that other people view oneself, corresponding to self-expression factor, and self-realization is considered as centrality. However, media and promoting friendship factors had no effect on attraction factor, and this result may be explained by two facets that involvement factor has - cognitional and behavioral. Cognitional involvement refers to the level of preference, needs, and perception, and behavioral involvement refers to the level of interest about information and action of behavior (Pyo, 2011). Among the involvement factors this study suggested, attraction applies to the cognitional involvement while self-expression and centrality apply to the behavioral involvement. From this point of view, precedent researches supported the result that media and promoting friendship increased the level of behavioral involvement, however are not related to the cognitional involvement. Jung (2016) observed that favor on a horse and achievement positively affected cognitional involvement however media prevented equestrian participants from cognitional involvement. The research interprets this result by restrictive information of equestrian activity the mass media provides, because people perceive a biased image of horse riding that it is limited to a specific class. Therefore equestrian participants with media motivation seemed to be involved in external expression or concentration, however seemed to not feel pleasure or satisfaction from riding. In addition, Lee (2015) focused on the trait of equestrian activity that it is an individual and private activity thus did not affect cognitional involvement. In other words, equestrian participants with promoting friendship motivation would be involved in the way others evaluate oneself or social interaction, however not consider riding important or divert oneself in riding.

Third, pursuit of health factor did not affected all the involvement factors. In other words, equestrian participants who expect exercise effect, physical improvement, or weight loss tend to involve less than other motivations. In this regard, Kim (2011) also suggested the same result with equestrian participants. The research investigated which motivation would affect cognitional and behavioral involvement respectively, and observed that health motivation had no effect on both involvement factors in contrast with other motivations. Pyo (2011) explained that involvement is a meaningful source to promote leisure participation sustainability, and participants tend to involve more deeply when involvement is more related to intrinsic motivation such as pleasure. It is because involvement experience occurs when activity itself is the objective of motivation, regardless of any external compensations. The more and more time spending with horses make participant share more sympathy and rapport, thereby regard the internal motivations the most important. Therefore, people participate in equestrian activity with health or physical compensations seem to focus on effectiveness produced from riding thus do not experience involvement. Moreover, many of the equestrian participants are professionals, self-employed, or free-lancers with higher incomes, and they schedule frequency unvarying and are able to keep regular habits (Pyo, 2011). Health pursuit participants tend to regard horse riding as a mean of continued health and ride habitually (Kim, 2008), thus they seem to not be attracted enough to involved by riding.

Discussion on the relationship between involvement and commitment formative

This study assumed that each involvement factor will positively affect each commitment formative factor, and hypothesis was partially supported. First, self-expression factor positively affected all the commitment formative factors. To be specific, equestrian participants who express self by riding long for knowledge and information, take responsible for the choice, and identify with riding by positioning self in it. Cognitive development theory (Thelen & Smith, 1994) supports participants’ commitment to informational complexity, suggesting that as participants’ involvement with specific activities increases, their knowledge related to the activity also increases (Kyle & Mowen, 2005). Also, Pyo (2011) discussed that equestrian participants seem to enjoy others asking about expert knowledge because it is considered to get others’ recognition. Accordingly participants with high level of self-expression tend to desire information to fulfill others’ expectation as a master. Lee (2013) revealed that many equestrian participants identify the image of equestrian activity with themselves and try to command attention of others about the optimal leisure life style they have never found previously. In the perspective of volitional choice, self-expression may be explained by Greenwald's (1982) impression management and ego involvement. To leisure participants who desire perceptions of self to an activity, the presentation of activity related contents reflects their own choice (Kyle & Chick, 2002). It also may be explained by social judgment perspective, which asserts that involvement and self-concept are related constructs. If individuals are highly involved with an activity and their self-value is based upon it, they tend to hold more intense attitude about it (Chang & Gibson, 2011; Sherif et al., 1973). High involved people with self-value are more strongly motivated to protect their beliefs and attitudes related to activity, because activity related experience grants not only awareness of alternative choice but also leads to judge the consequence more definitive (Kyle & Mowen, 2005). Havitz and Dimanche (1990) also insisted that involved participants who are aware of more service alternatives tend to have more distinct service preferences. Self-expression value of consumption behavior is also an important part of position involvement, because participation in an activity can be a motivator for an individual to attain one’s desired value and self-image through position involvement (Crosby & Taylor, 1983; Pritchard et al., 1992).

Second, attraction factor had positive effect on volitional choice factor however no effect on informational complexity or position involvement factor. In other words, when participants recognize the importance of equestrian activity from enjoyment and satisfaction they receive, they seem to exert freedom of choice and often desire to maintain that volitional choice. People who experience enjoyment from leisure activity carefully scrutinize decision-making process, and involve in an activity they never experienced (Iwasaki & Havitz, 1998). However, the result of this study indicated that among the commitment factors informational complexity and position involvement were not predicted by attraction involvement in equestrian activity. With regard to this consequence, Nam and Kim (2011) inferred that equestrian participants who take pleasure in riding sense satisfaction and achievement by participation itself, therefore they are not motivated from displaying of external conditions and boasting of riding. Therefore, equestrian participants with the high level of attraction involvement make a decision based on a person’s free choice, however they unlikely to perceive a complex cognitive structure and in-depth insight into riding or to evaluate that self-images of riding perceived in public association are consistent with personal self (Iwasaki & Havitz, 2004). Participants’ affective responses such as enjoy, fun, and excitement are sometimes independent from the activities, programs, and their personal motivation. And the responses may be affected by other elements such as the environment of the club or the behavior of the staff (Alexandris et al., 2002). For equestrian participants involved in riding with importance and pleasure, their needs and expectation when perceive enjoyment should be identified to derive commitment and appropriate and effective relationship marketing program to build communication should be designed.

Third, centrality factor did not affected all the commitment formative factors. Centrality of equestrian participation refers to an participants’ total lifestyle that are associated with a riding (Kyle et al, 2003), and even though the riding includes centrality to some individuals, it does not attract participants’ commitment to riding significantly. Kyle and Chick (2002) supports this result by observing that Fair participants who score high on centrality dimension look forward to the Fair each year, however they invest little else of their life in the event thereby are more difficult to maintain their commitment. Kyle and Chick (2002) explained this phenomenon with social ties that are a part of the centrality dimension. They claimed that leisure is most often a social rather than individual experience, and suggested that investigators using scales to measure centrality might need to consider separating the two components as to centrality to lifestyle and social contexts. Chen et al. (2013) also stressed the social aspect of centrality that is expressed by the importance of the leisure activity for an individual's family, friends, and meaningful acquaintances. Centrality is under the influence of social contents because high involvement does not always translate directly to high psychological commitment in part due to moderate effects of social-situational factors that involvement have on psychological commitment (Iwasaki & Havits, 1998). Funk at al. (2004) also found the origins related to centrality stemmed from the opportunity to bond with friends, interaction with others, and whom share the activity preference. Because centrality of involvement provides the opportunity to cultivate social contacts, and social opportunities created through leisure activity influence individuals' preference that encompasses one's lifestyle orientation. Therefore, when consider the relationship between centrality facet and psychological commitment, social components should be reflected, however, trait of equestrian activity is more of an individual and private than social (Lee, 2015). For equestrian participants, intrapersonal restrictions rather than interpersonal restrictions should be conquered to be committed to riding.

Discussion on the relationship between commitment formative and resistance to change

This study assumed that each commitment formative factor will positively affect resistance to change factor, and hypothesis was partially supported. First, informational complexity and volitional choice factor had positive effect on resistance to change factor. Bodet (2012) supported the finding that a relationship between the informational processes and resistance to change exists. Iwaski & Havitz (2004) also suggested that information process forms cognitive structures and when more reasons, beliefs, knowledge or complex cognitive structure toward a particular attitude is generated, it is more difficult to change that attitude. It is because individuals who resist to change in certain activity will actively increase their skills in order to be more involved in the activity and will persist in their preferences (Teng, 2011). When participants continuously involved in the activity and become psychologically committed to it, they would not be willing to change their preference and concentrate on the balance skill and challenges. In other words, they will try to obtain related knowledge and experience in order to upgrade their skills that is needed to overcome challenges they face, and persist in their activities. (Cheng et al., 2016). Moreover, Bloemer and Odekerken-Schröder (2003) explained that when complex informational schema is based on participants’ commitment, changing their mind becomes more difficult because accommodating different cognition involves more challenge. When complex cognitive structure supports the attitude, deviation from an attitude involves higher psychological costs (Salancik, 1977).

The result may be explained by side bet theory suggested by Becker (1960) who described commitment as a tendency to engage in consistent lines of activity as a result of the accumulation of ‘side bets’ that would be lost if the activity were discontinued. Meyer and Allen (1984) interpreted the term side bet in general that it refers to anything of value the individual has invested such as time, effort, and money. The research asserted that the more individuals achieve side bets, the more expensive the consequence of inconsistency would be because side bets would be lost or worthless when commitment is discontinued. Scanlan et al. (1993) hold the same view, found personal investments and sport commitment were correlated indicating that expenditures of time and effort are associated with greater commitment to participation. Funk et al. (2004) also agreed that individuals who have made a financial and psychological investment are more capable of carrying out psychological risk to their commitment formation. In short, equestrian participants become committed to riding because the invested cost related to riding are high enough to continuously build the psychological relationship. Lee (2013) observed that equestrian participants attempt to reinforce their professionalism by many scholarly activity such as learning theories, viewing video clips, and asking coaches. This tendency to gather information is evident among serious equestrian participants who had been participated some period of time and often, and is done by self-endeavor rather than others’ recommendation. Moreover, when participants choose equestrian activity from wide range of leisure activities, they tend to grant greater meaning in that selection. Because when people sense they are acting freely in choosing something, they attribute meaning toward the decision that has been taken out of free choice and involve freedom from constraints. (Bem, 1967; Bloemer & Odekerken-Schröder, 2003).

Second, however, position involvement had no effect on resistance to change. As Iwasaki and Havitz (1998) mentioned, high psychological commitment does not always linearly result in a high degree of resistance to change because each facet of psychological commitment of individual are unlikely to fluctuate in tandem. In case of equestrian activity, participants’ psychological commitment that reflect their self-value may change their preference for the participation. Kyle et al. (2004) also presented the same result among recreationists, insisting that position involvement had non-significant t-value on activity resistance. The research concluded that this specificity may be due to level difference related to psychological commitment construct scale. Psychological commitment measurement provided by Pritchard et al. (1999) includes two forms of level; commitment to the leisure activity (product level) and commitment to the service provider (brand level), and they suggested that when measuring with brand commitment seemed to be more appropriate in leisure activity setting. Freedman (1964) also described position involvement as “self-values perceived by the consumer in their commitment to a particular brand of product or service” making reference to brand level commitment. Based on precedent researches, this study assumed that the negative relationship between position involvement and resistance to change is derived because the equestrian participants recognized the scale as the product level, that is psychological commitment to equestrian service itself. If they evaluated their internal views of self-values are consistent with the service provider, the result may had been different. Bloemer and Odekerken-Schröder (2003) are in the same vein in the perspective of identification process. Identification process refers to the question whether customers identify themselves with the values embodied by a particular service provider, and position involvement is considered to be an important construct representing the identification process. The more strongly customers identify themselves with the service provider, the stronger their commitment towards the service provider is expected. The research also supports in the perspective of relationship with the involvement factor, centrality. They asserted that position involvement would be built when image of the service provider comes close to the lifestyle of the customer. Since centrality facet did not created position involvement among equestrian participants, it may come to the result that resistance to change to other activities was negatively followed by position involvement.

Discussion on the relationship between resistance to change and loyalty

This study assumed that resistance to change factor will positively affect loyalty factor, and hypothesis was supported. Participants’ psychological commitment resulted in their resistance to change to other activities, and it included two facets which are preference stability and resistance to counter persuasion (Buchanan, 1985; Crosby & Taylor, 1983; Iwasaki & Havitz 1998). Preference stability is maintained by two mechanisms, selective perception to protect preference and biased post-decision evaluative process to defend prior decisions (Crosby & Taylor, 1983; Pritchard et al., 1996). Resistance to counter persuasion blocks persuasive communication which provides information about alternative choice (Dick & Basu, 1994). Resistance to change is the most critical factor involved in psychological commitment, thus when participants pass through two processes and practice a certain behavior for a period of time, commitment continues to work (Cheng et al., 2016). Besides higher level of psychological commitment develops loyalty as a progressive process, and again resistance to change functions as a key precursor to loyalty development process (Iwaski & Havitz, 2004; Pritchard et al., 1999). Kyle et al. (2004) provided the empirical evidence through their research observing setting resistance and activity resistance positively influenced loyalty, which produce participants’ psychological dependence on the activity and their reluctance to alter their activity preferences. Bodet (2012) also presented the result that resistance to change significantly influenced behavioral intentions which is the attitudinal dimension of loyalty.