Introduction
Table 1.
Diffusion of Innovation
Innovation-Decision Process Theory
1) Knowledge - exposure to the innovation’s existence and function;
2) Persuasion - formation of a favourable or unfavourable attitude toward the innovation;
3) Decision - engagement in activities to lead to a choice to adopt or reject the Innovation;
4) Implementation - putting the innovation into use;
5) Confirmation - seeking reinforcement of an innovation decision already made.
1) Obtain an overview of the problems(s) and solution(s) from a comprehensive written source;
2) Obtain a similar overview from at least one person who has had direct experience with the Problem(s) and/or solution(s);
3) Observe the innovation in tangible form;
4) Obtain evaluative data from an objective source from at least two persons who have had direct experience or representing different perspectives;
5) Obtain the innovation for trial;
6) Acquire or develop a framework for evaluating its results (i.e. a rubric for making the decision to implement or reject) prior to actually conducting a trial of the innovation.
Attributes of Innovations and their Rate of Adoption Theory
1) Relative advantage (usefulness) - the degree to which an innovation is perceived as a better idea than the idea it replaces;
2) Compatibility - the degree to which an innovation is perceived as consistent with the existing values, past experience and needs of potential adopters;
3) Complexity (level of difficulty to use) - the degree to which an innovation is perceived as relatively difficult to understand and use;
4) Trialability - the degree to which an innovation may be experimented with on a limited basis;
5) Observability - the degree to which the result of an innovation are visible to others.
Innovativeness and Adopter Categories Attributes Theory
Change Communication Models
1) The teacher (who has the most direct control over what happens in the classroom);
2) The principal (who is positioned to set the climate for change in the school);
3) The student (who, if their learning is not served, renders implementation valueless);
4) The district administrator (who has significant autonomy in establishing distinct policy);
5) The consultant (who brings specialized change knowledge and/or enables follow through);
6) The parents and the community (who rarely become involved, but usually prevail when this happens);
7) The government (who can mandate action and provide, or withhold, support);
8) The teacher-educator (who can equip the faculty and staff with tools for leading change).
Successful Implementation of Change
1) Ensure stakeholder involvement (ensuring that everyone affected has input and can participate).
a. Coordinate efforts (as opposed to uncoordinated efforts pulling in different directions).
b. Work as a team (avoiding “us vs. them” or “not intended here” syndromes);
2) Design for the ideal (challenging old assumptions).
a. Reexamine obstacles (do old barriers still exist?)
b. Research solutions (have new innovations become ripple effects);
3) Understand interrelationships (planning for systemic ripple effects).
a. Minimize conflict (be alert for dissonance between new and existing subsystems).
b. Maximize synergy (seek ways for new and existing subsystems to reinforce one another);
4) Create a viable system (making sure that the end result works as a coherent whole).
a. Remove barriers (that may inhibit continuous adaptation to the changing environment);
5) Reengineer the organization (to support the new set of processes).
1) There must be dissatisfaction with the status quo;
2) The people who will ultimately implement any innovation must possess sufficient knowledge and skills to do the job;
3) The things needed to make the innovation work should be easily accessible;
4) Implementers must have time to learn, adapt, integrate and reflect on what they are doing;
5) Rewards or incentives must exist for participants;
6) Participation in the change process must be expected and encouraged;
7) Unqualified go-ahead and vocal support for the innovation by key players and other stakeholders are necessary;
8) Leadership must be evident.
1) Do not assume that your version of what the change should be is the one that should or could be implemented. Exchange your reality via interaction with implementers-some transformation or continual development of initial ideas is needed;
2) Must be a process of clarification via reflective practice not on needs assessment, program development and problem definition activities;
3) Conflict and disagreement are fundamental to successful change. People have multiple realities. Smooth implementation is often a sign that nothing is really happening;
4) People need pressure to change - must allow them to react, form their own position, interact with other implementers, obtain technical assistance;
5) Assume that effective change takes time. Unrealistic or undefined time lines fail to recognize that implementation occurs developmentally - a minimum of 2 to 3 years;
6) If the implementation is failing, do not assume it is a rejection. There are a number of reasons to value rejection - inadequate resources to support implementation and insufficient time elapsed;
7) Do not expect all or most of the people to change. Progress occurs in steps, which increase the number of people affected. Be encouraged by the increase;
8) Evolutionary planning and problem-coping models based on knowledge of the change process are essential;
9) Assume that no amount of knowledge will make it totally clear what action should be taken. Action decisions are combination of valid knowledge, political consideration, on-the-spot decisions and intuition;
10) Assume that changing the culture in institutions is the real agenda and not implementing single innovations.